ADDED MARCH 2018: 103 NEVER BEFORE PUBLISHED
PHOTOS FROM MARINE CORPS PRIVATE WILLIAM E. PLOCHARSKI,
DEPLOYED IN LAS SEGOVIAS FIGHTING SANDINO'S "BANDITS" 1928-1929
THIS WEBSITE'S RESEARCH SPOTLIGHTED IN A COVER STORY
IN LA PRENSA MAGAZINE (MANAGUA) IN JAN. 2017.
THANKS TO THE NICARAGUAN JOURNALIST AMALIA DEL CID FOR A
TERRIFIC ARTICLE!
ARTICLE INTERWOVEN WITH THIS WEBSITE AWARDED THE
2013 DAVIS PRIZE BY THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC COUNCIL ON LATIN
AMERICAN STUDIES (MACLAS) — "CULTURAL GEOGRAPHIES OF
GRIEVANCE & WAR: NICARAGUA'S ATLANTIC COAST REGION
IN THE FIRST SANDINISTA REVOLUTION, 1926-1934," DIALECTICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, DEC.
2012
SEE ALSO MY RECENT PUBLICATIONS IN THE OPEN-ACCESS
ONLINE ACADEMIC MAGAZINE, REVISTA DE TEMAS NICARAGÜENSES, 2012—2018, AT
WWW.TEMASNICAS.NET
AS FEATURED ON NICARAGUAN TV, CDNN CHANNEL 23, FEB 21, 2012
& IZQUIERDA VISIÓN •
A JOINT INTERVIEW WITH WALTER C. SANDINO BY
NICARAGUAN FILMMAKER MARCIO VARGAS, NOW ON
PART 1 •
PART 2
PART
3 •
PART 4
ALSO ON YOUTUBE, INTERVIEW WITH LA REVISTA
TIERRA NICA IN JINOTEGA, JULY 2014:
AND AS FEATURED ON CDNN CHANNEL 23
'DANILO LACAYO EN VIVO ' FRI 16 JULY 2010 (©
DANILO LACAYO)
"Afortunadamente, existe ahora una fuente
extraordinaria sobre Sandino y el EDSNN al alance del
público. Se trata del extraordinario sitio web
www.sandinorebellion.org pacientemente administrado y
enriquecido regularmente por el historiador norteamericano
Professor Michael J. Schroeder, con el apoyo de sus
estudiantes de Lebanon Valley College. Continuamos
encontrando nueva documentación sobre Sandino, el EDSNN y la
lucha en las Segovias en diversos archivos norteamericanos
con fotografías, documentos y periódicos de la época,
pacientemente digitalizados por Schroeder y sus estudiantes,
incluyendo la costa del Caribe y sobre la Guardia Nacional."
- Alejandro Bendaña,
Sandino: Patria y Libertad (Managua: anamá Ediciones,
2016).
"Los centroamericanos y en
particular los nicaragüenses tenemos que agradecer y
aprovechar la existencia de este portal Sandino Rebellion
que contiene numerosos documentos y fotografías que ilustran
sobre la intervención y ocupación militar norteamericana en
Nicaragua y la heroica resistencia de Augusto C. Sandino.
Este importante y destacado esfuerzo del historiador Michael
Schroeder y de quienes han colaborado con él, nos permite
asomarnos, desde nuestros lugares, a documentación que de
otra forma, solamente sería accesible a unos pocos."
- Dora María Téllez, former Sandinista commander &
public servant, founding member of the Sandinista Renovation
Movement (MRS), and now historian and Nicaraguan
representative of Enlace Académico, at
www.enlaceacademico.org
"Amor, Paz y Justicia, sea para todos nuestros Hermanos y Hermanas que
visitan este Web Site.
Y de manera muy especial en nombre de
toda nuestra familia,
sea también este deseo para nuestro querido Hermano el
Profesor Michael Schroeder, por haber dedicado una parte
importante de su vida a la recopilación de información sobre
la Vida y Obra del General Augusto C. Sandino y de sus
compañeros de lucha, pues reconocemos la dedicación y el
esfuerzo en su trabajo, logrando avanzar en beneficio de los
nicaragüenses y de la humanidad. No creo que exista en la
Web un historiador capaz de haber recopilado tanta
información sobre estos acontecimientos historicos.
Siempre más
allá . . . "
- Walter
C. Sandino, grandson of Augusto C. Sandino, Executive
President of the Fundación Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino (FANCS),
and author of
El libro de Sandino: El Bandolerismo
de Sandino en Nicaragua (Managua: INPASA, 2009).
Visit the FANCS website at
www.acsandino.org.ni
"A stunning enterprise — a virtual Sandino online
encyclopedia and data base — and an obligatory starting
point for anyone researching twentieth century Nicaraguan
history."
-
Barry Carr, Senior Fellow, Institute of Latin American
Studies, La Trobe University
"Discovering your site was like finding a
buried treasure ..."
read more from
William Alvarez, US Marine Corps,
of Atlanta GA
"A Nicaraguan
artist friend just forwarded me your website. I've
read enough to know that it is like finding gold on the
moon! ..."
read
more from
Linda John of San
Francisco CA
SEEKING VOLUNTEER TRANSLATORS & TRANSCRIBERS
Richard
Siu in Florida. Linda Pudder in Rivas, Nic.
Brandon Ray in Illinois. Lorena Torres in Mexico City.
Four volunteers who've
contributed mightily to this website, because they saw & see
its historical value, and because they are generous human
beings. Might you volunteer to work on this project? Right
now thousands of documents on this topic cry out to be
transcribed. Thousands more desperately seek
translatation into Spanish. Maybe you could work on
one
of them!
If your work ends up on this website, you'll be thanked and
your work acknowledged. All the work can be done
electronically. Meantime, copious
thanks to Richard Siu, Linda Pudder, Brandon Ray, and Lorena
Torres!
SE
BUSCA TRANSCRIPTORES Y TRADUCTORES VOLUNTARIOS
Richard Siu en Florida. Linda Pudder en Rivas, Nic. Brandon
Ray en Illinois. Lorena Torres en la Ciudad de México.
Cuatro voluntarios que han contribuido
poderosamente a este sitio web, porque vieron y ven su valor
histórico, y porque son seres humanos generosos. ¿Podría usted ofrecer su mano de obra para este
proyecto? Ahorita hay miles de documentos que
están pidiendo a gritos ser transcritos. Miles más
buscan desesperadamente ser traducidos al español.
Quizás usted podría trabajar en uno
de ellos! Si los resultados de su trabajo aparecen acá
en este Website, se le agradece por nombre y su trabajo será
reconocido.
Todo el trabajo se puede realizar por vía
electrónica. Mientras, muchas gracias a Richard Siu, Linda
Pudder, Brandon Ray, y Lorena Torres!
GRANTS RECIPIENT AT LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE
FROM
spring 2009 to the present, this website project
has been awarded more than $16,500 from
Lebanon Valley College's Pleet Initiative for
Student-Faculty Research; the Arnold Grants in Experiential Education;
and the Dick Joyce Endowment of the Dept. of History,
Politics & Global Studies, in memory of beloved LVC History
Professor Dick Joyce (d. 2005). Many thanks to David &
Lynn Pleet of Lebanon PA; to Ed & Jeanne Arnold of Lebanon
PA; and to Lloyd R. Helt, Jr. & Ruth Gray (Lloyd Helt was
Dick Joyce's student back in the 1970s and loved
his classes on European history!) — thanks to all for their
generous support, and to the many LVC students who've devoted their
time, labor, and creativity to this
project.
In grateful appreciation to Sra. Lorena Torres
for her expert & generous volunteer work transcribing and
translating documents for this website project, we heartily
recommend her transcription business, T-Vox México,
at
ECO-TOURISM IN NICARAGUA
A great way to see Nicaragua's countryside and support local
businesses is the award-winning Finca Esperanza Verde in the
verdant mountains of San Ramón near Matagalpa.
To quote from FEV's promotional materials,
"Come
relax at our organic coffee farm complete with 5 hiking
trails, gorgeous views, a butterfly garden, yoga pavilion,
hammock hut and waterfall swimming hole ...
All of Finca Esperanza Verde's ecotourism income stays
in the community supporting local jobs and businesses."
FEV is a project of Sister Communities of San Ramón,
Nicaragua.
Visit
the Finca Esperanza Verde website
here
|
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Introduction
to the Site
This
Website is envisioned as a comprehensive,
interpretive, open-access digital archive on the
nationalist rebellion against US military intervention in Nicaragua led
by Augusto C. Sandino in the 1920s and '30s. Rigorous accuracy,
judicious interpretation, and the democratization of knowledge rank
among its most important guiding principles. (Right: Statue in
Managua commemorating the 1979 Triumph of the Sandinista Revolution,
July 19, 2009; photo by the author.)
Right now this Website
houses and integrates more than 4,855 archival documents
on the rebellion, comprising around 12,000 pages of hard-copy text &
images, with
a good portion of the text transcribed and fully searchable (see
UPDATE BOX,
below). It also lists & identifies the
archival locations of another 5,000
or so documents, together comprising over 15,000 pages of text. Eventually (by the year
2026, I hope) this website will house and
integrate over 30,000 documents
— and thousands more pages of published texts
— materials collected over two decades in archives & libraries in the United
States and Nicaragua. All but a handful are public domain, though I do suggest
some SIMPLE
PROTOCOLS for using &
citing this material.
This tsunami of evidence
on this
oft-mentioned but little understood guerrilla war and nationalist
campesino rebellion offers an unprecedented look at events "on the
ground" in a major episode of foreign invasion & occupation during the
golden age of US imperialism in the circum-Caribbean (c. 1898-1934).
The portrait of Sandino's revolt that emerges from this documentary
deluge is vastly more nuanced and complex than any scholar or poet has
yet conveyed.
Yet
however nuanced this portrait, however intricate and
messy and confusing, it is also true that most everything you read about
in these pages was rooted in a
simple reality: the executive branch of the US federal government,
as part of a larger imperial project, invaded & occupied this small Central American country, and a small group of
Nicaraguans, led by a charismatic patriot, resisted that invasion &
occupation by force of arms.
(Left: 1984 Bulgarian
postage stamp commemorating the 50th anniversary of Sandino's death)
The
Website's Focus. As a social & cultural historian, I am mainly interested in the Sandino
revolt as a social and cultural process, as a local response to foreign
invasion and occupation. The documents presented here reflect this
focus. They were selected because they speak, in some fashion, to
the agency of Nicaraguans and Segovianos in shaping their own history.
By Way of Background & Context.
The US Marines first intervened militarily in
Nicaragua in the civil war of 1912, and were stationed in the country more or less
continuously for the next 20 years. Nicaragua effectively became a
U.S. protectorate, surrendering much of its sovereignty to the United
States, as was true of much of the circum-Caribbean during this period.
READ MORE
Las
Segovias.
In
the late 1920s this rugged region bordering Honduras was home to about 120,000
people spread over some 6,000 square miles of mountains, valleys,
forests, and jungles, in several dozen towns and hundreds of villages,
hamlets, and homesteads. Even before the Marines arrived,
extreme inequality, oppression, exploitation, poverty, and violence dominated the
social landscape. After May 1927 Segovianos flocked to Sandino's banner. The Marine invasion
intensified; the US-created National Guard grew in power; and by 1932
the Sandinista rebels, based in Las Segovias and organized into a
government of their own, threatened to topple the national government.
READ
MORE
The Imperial
Spotlight. Before
mid-1927 there is very little documentation on Las Segovias, a frontier region
bordering Honduras mostly ignored by the national state. Then in
June 1927 came the Marine invasion & occupation, and our documentary
base explodes. For 5½ years the US
imperial spotlight — expressed in a dazzling variety & quantity of
texts —
illluminated the hidden corners & crevices of a culture & society &
history hitherto almost totally obscured. The interpretive
challenge for scholars is to read these texts against the grain,
in the words of Ranajit Guha in his classic
The
Prose of Counter-Insurgency (1988) — and with a fertile & reasoned
historical imagination. Alongside this explosion of
imperial texts was the proliferation of texts & artifacts created by the
Sandinista rebels that the Marines & Guardia were trying to eradicate.
In January 1933 the spotlight vanished, and a month later Sandino's
armed rebellion basically ended in a provisional peace treaty with the
newly elected Sacasa government. The Marines went home, carting
hundreds of boxes of records with them. What the US imperial gaze
spotlighted for those 6 or so years constitutes
the bulk of what I wish to share here — alongside a wide variety of
sources from Honduras, Mexico, Great Britain, Germany & beyond. Smaller in scale but often
punchier in impact are the
textual fragments & social memories produced in Las Segovias that survived the brutal repression
that followed Sandino's assassination in 1934.
Animating
Questions. Lots
of questions inspire & animate this website.
Mainly I'm interested in what the US invasion &
occupation, the formation of the Guardia Nacional, and
Sandino's revolutionary movement meant for ordinary
Segovianos — campesinos, Indians, tenants &
sharecroppers, smallholders & squatters, miners &
migrant workers, seasonal & day laborers (who together comprised some
85-90% of the region's population), as well as townsfolk, artisans & smugglers, peddlers &
traders, boat-drivers & mule-drivers, ranchers &
coffee growers, merchants & professionals, politicians &
military leaders — individuals, families & communities
caught up in a whirlwind of foreign invasion and
insurgency as complex and multifaceted as any in
history. I also want to know what these events meant in the broader sweep of
history — in Nicaragua, Central America, the Western
Hemisphere, and the Atlantic World — and how they intersected
with broader changes within these overlapping spheres.
What manner of revolutionary movement was this?
What were its origins, characteristics, and legacies? All
the documents here speak in some fashion to these
broader questions & themes.
(Right: young
woman soldier with Conservative forces in 1926-27 Civil
War; detail of one of a series of 30 photos taken by US
Military Attaché Major A. W. Blooor in March 1927,
published here for the first time, from US National
Archives II, College Park MD, in the Photo-Doc pages,
here)
Why a Documentary History?
Historians
come and historians go, but the documents endure. These documents,
if read with enough care and attention and alongside extant
published literature, will bring us as close as we can get to
understanding what this tumultuous period meant for ordinary Segovianos, and to its
complexities as a social process locally, nationally, and transnationally.
Documents, of course, do not speak for themselves. They must be
analyzed and
interpreted,
which is the job of historians and of rational human beings generally.
Publishing these documents online creates not only a valuable tool for
students and researchers. It also means that others might
interpret these documents differently than I do. That is as it
should be. I introduce or conclude many documents with some interpretive
comments. Others might disagree with my interpretations or
emphases. If you do, let me know! Let a thousand interpretations bloom! (Left: detail
of letter from Sandino to Faustino González, 2 April 1931, one of around
1,000 Sandinista documents to be published here for the first time)
This way anybody —
you, for example — can tap into this densely
integrated web of information and ask just about any
kind of historical question you want to ask. You can ask about war-making or coffee
making. Vocabularies of political violence or
social geographies of production and trade.
Gender, class & race relations. Popular
nationalism. Poverty, malnutrition & disease. Military tactics & strategy.
Insurgency & counterinsurgency. Borderlands &
identities. Local political economies.
Historical geography. State formation & guerrilla
war. Leadership, weapons & tactics.
Production & settlement patterns. Social memory &
identity formation. Just
about anything. There is a whole universe in this
little grain of sand.
(Right: campesino in field, Western Segovias,
1928, George F. Stockes Collection, MCRC, one of 71 photos from the Stockes Collection
published here)
I create this site in the classic tradition
of scholarship: as an original contribution to
existing knowledge on a specific set of questions about the world. In part it
is envisioned as a documentary annex to my book in progress. In
part it is meant to give back to the Nicaraguan people a part of their
own history. In whole it is rooted in the hope that we — humanity,
and especially US citizens and policymakers — might learn from our
mistakes. The story told by these documents is not only edifying & important
but endlessly interesting
and should become part of humanity's common stock of knowledge.
What's
Here?
Right now only a fraction of the
collection is published here, perhaps 10 percent. The other 90
percent awaits publication of my book-in-progress, The Sandino
Rebellion. The goal is to make the end product — the printed
book & this website — a genuinely hybrid print-web text.
Meantime all documents
currently available can be found via this Document Update Box:
D O C U M E N T
U P D A T E B O
X |
Primary Documents NOW Available:
4,886
•
air War
|
80 AIRCRAFT SQUADRONS reports on the air war
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•
air-toons
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23 POLITICAL cartoons & graphics on the air war, with interpretive captions
|
•
BIB & LIT
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32 COLUMNS OF SALOMÓN DE LA SELVA PUBLISHED IN
LA
TRIBUNA (MANAGUA) IN 1929, PLUS 2 ANCILLARY STORIEs
• & other rare published workS
|
•
EAST COAST
|
1,084
DOCUMENTS IN 2,346 JPEG FILES on the atlantic coast region IN
THE TIME OF SANDINO, ORGANIZED
CHRONOLOGICALLY IN 53 WEBPAGES, WITH 14 ANCILLARY
THEMATIC & TOPICAL PAGES
|
•
Edsn
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9 DOCUMENTS FROM 1931-1932 LISTING "KNOWN BANDITS"
AROUND PALACAGÜINA, ESTELÍ, oCOTAL, CONDEGA, JINOTEGA,
EL SAUCE & MATAGALPA
|
•
EDSN-DOCS
|
339 hitherto
unpublished Sandinista documents through march 1928
• a smattering in
1930 and 1931 •
& most of january 1932
•
26 NEVER BEFORE PUBLISHED DOCUMENTS FROM La colecciÓn de daniel ortega cerda,
FATHER OF CURRENT NICARAGUAN PRESIDENT DANIEL ORTEGA
SAAVEDRA
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•
GANGS
|
26 DOCUMENTS ON
CHAMORRISTA GANG LEADER & POLITICAL MASS MURDERER ANASTACIO HERNÁNDEZ
& 26 JPEG IMAGES OF NICARAGUAN NEWSPAPERS FOCUSING ON
CHAMORRISMO, 1927-1928
|
•
guardia
|
109 "guardia news letters" from
NOV. 1927 to dec. 1932, IN
1,939 pages of text • the "official list of
contacts," ON 510 military engagements from july 1927 to
dec. 1932, IN 111 pages of text • 15 guardia
troop distribution lists, dec. 1931 to APRIL 1935
• 17 PARTIAL issues of the
boletines
(bulletins) of the guardia nacional, 1933-1935 •
never before published photos of the guardia •
63 DOCUMENTS OF THE US MILITARY INTELLIGENCE DIVISION
(precursor to the CIA) on the guardia, 1920-1941 •
152 documents on the voluntarios, jan-juLY 1929
• & MORE
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•
Honduras
|
120 reports on events in the honduras-segovian
borderlands, 1919-1926
|
•
IR-DOCS
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13 SERIAL
INTELLIGENCE REPORTs, JAN-MARCH 1928
|
•
MAPS
|
THE 1934 US ARMY G-2 MILITARY
INTELLIGENCE DIVISION MAP OF NICARAGUA (NORTH OF A LINE
FROM MANAGUA TO BLUEFIELDS) • 22 MAPS OF CITIES & TOWNS, 1910-1932 •
THE COMPLETE TEXT OF THE CLASSIC GRADE SCHOOL PRIMER,
HERMANOS CRISTIANOS, GEOGRAFÍA DE NICARAGUA
(1928) • & MORE
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•
M-DocS
|
30 hojas VOLANTES (propaganda fliers) of the mARINES-Guardia,
THE EDSN & OTHERS
&
24
propaganda leaflets of liberal, conservative &
nationalist parties in the runup to the november 1928
electionS, AMONG OTHER GEMs
• 193 DOCS THRU 1927 |
•
NEWS-DOCS
|
481 RELEVANT NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
FROM THE NICARAGUAN NEWSPAPERS DIARIO MODERNO
(MANAGUA; 281 ARTICLES FROM JUNE to DECember 1927, IN 287 JPEG
FILES) AND LA TRIBUNA (MANAGUA; 200 ARTICLES
FROM JANuary & February 1929, IN 190 JPEG FILES).
|
•
PC-DOCS
|
126 PATROL &
COMBAT REPORTS, WITH BRIEF SUMMARIES & ANALYSES & ancillary
docs, TO JUNE 1928
& Some after
|
•
PHOTO-DOCS
|
560+ PHOTOS OF MARINES,
GUARDIA, SANDINISTAS, LIBERALS, CONSERVATIVES, LAS SEGOVIAS
& MORE IN COLLECTIONS ORGANIZED BY REPOSITORY & THEMe
• including 171 state dept photos of the november 1928
electionS • 13 PHOTOS OF THE
VOLUNTARIOS OF
1929 • photos donated by readeRS,
including 103 hitherto unpublished & unknown photos
(& ONE CARTOON) from
the Wm. E. Plocharski Collection
|
•
TOP
100
|
100 of the most illuminating reports on the sandinistas
from the outside looking in, with critical introductions
& accompanied by 711 ancillary documents •
incl. 486 documents in 593 jpeg files on the
international aspects of the "Sandino Situation" as
tracked by u.s. intelligence agencies, 1928-1933 (doc
95) • 7 reports in 58 jpeg files by u.s.
military attachÉ major a. w. bloor on the nicaraguan
civil war, march-may 1927 (doc 99) • 93
DOCUMENTS IN 217 JPEG FILES ON NICARAGUANS' RESPONSES TO
THE MISSION OF U.S. SPECIAL ENVOY HENRY STIMSON,
APRIL-MAY 1927 (doc 100)
|
•
usmc-docs
|
331
personal letters of p.f.c. emil thomas of ohio (in
nicaragua 1928-1929) to his sweetheart beatrice
• 7 oral histories of retired
marines who fought in nicaragua
•
the official list
of marine Corps Casualties in Nicaragua, 1927-1933
•
papers of wilburt s. brown, robert H. dunlap, Merritt
"Red Mike" edson, GRAVES B.
ERSKINE, robert l.
denig (including his "diary of a guardia officer") & other
marines |
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A BLOW-BY-BLOW
ACCOUNT OF THE WEBSITE'S UPDATES & REVISIONS, COMMENCING
NOV-DEC 2014 |
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The bulk of these
primary documents were culled from the Records of the United
States Marine Corps & Nicaraguan National Guard, housed mainly in the US
National Archives (Record Group 127, or RG127), comprising about 150
linear feet of files. Other major repositories housing materials
that are housed here include the Marine Corps Research Center; the
Library of Congress; the US State Department; la Hemeroteca Nacional
Manolo Cuadra (Managua); el Instituto de Historia
de Nicaragua y Centroamerica (IHNCA-UCA, also in Managua); and others.
Most everything filtered out of these
collections and presented here speaks in some way to how Central
Americans, Nicaraguans, and Segovianos acted to shape their own history.
How is the Website Organized?
Densely. And so it's easy to use. For a full explanation, see the
user's guide.
Briefly:
At the top of every page are links to ten document collections,
ten thematic
collections, eight other links, and a Google search engine. At
the heart of the site are 20 homepages serving as portals into 20 collections of
documents, sorted by type & theme. With so many documents
& branches & sub-branches, the site is designed to be simple & easy to navigate,
find & cross-reference information, and
find your way back to where you started from & ended up.
Again, please see the
USER'S GUIDE.
Suggestions,
corrections
& comments invited. This website launched March 2007 & revamped in
March 2010.
Painting by Thelma Gómez F., Masaya,
Nicaragua, 1989
This
website is registered in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as
a non-profit corporation devoted to public education and
known as the SANDINO REBELLION
DIGITAL HISTORICAL ARCHIVE (entity
no. 4084540).
SUGGESTED PROTOCOLS FOR USING &
CITING THIS WEBSITE
Except
where indicated, all the documents and images populating
this website are in the public domain and anyone is free to
use them for any reason. This happy circumstance
coincides with the philosophy undergirding this project that
insists on the
democratization of information and knowledge on issues and
topics of public concern and public interest. That said, I ask that
people who use materials found in these pages cite this
website as the source and drop me a courtesy note to let me
know about it. Such information will help
me to build on the strengths of this project and secure
additional funding to keep moving it forward.
Thank you.
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Acknowledgements & Copyright
Copious thanks are
extended to Lebanon Valley College and the Pleet
Initiative for Student-Faculty Collaboration, the
Arnold Grant for Experiential Education, and the
Dick Joyce Endowment for their generous funding of
this website; to my teachers & mentors in Minnesota
& Michigan & beyond whose sage voices from
long ago I often still hear; and to everyone who's ever helped with this project over the past
28 years. It is a very long list.
*
Agradezco a Arturo
Castro-Frenzel, José Mejía Lacayo, y Walter Castillo
Sandino por ayudar en
corregir mis traducciones, por su amistad, y por ser
mis maestros sobre las cosas nicaragüenses.
*
Tim Haak and Mile6.com LLC
of Elizabethtown PA built the dynamic web templates
and continue to offer expert help at the drop of a
hat.
*
All original material ©
Michael J. Schroeder, 2007-2018. All rights
reserved.
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Visitors since
March 2010:
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