This page is devoted to various forms of graphic art treating the subject of the air war in Nicaragua ? mostly editorial cartoons, along with some propaganda sheets and comic books.  About two dozen examples are included here, though a systematic search would probably reveal many more; each is accompanied by a brief descriptive and interpretive caption.   Grateful appreciation is extended to Lebanon Valley College students Leslie Marie Hiller and Thafany Pamela Luna Minguez for their translations of some of the captions, and to the Arnold Grant in Experiential Education for funding their work.

     Esta p?gina se dedica a diversas formas de arte gr?fico que tratan el tema de la guerra a?rea en Nicaragua ? en su mayor?a caricaturas editoriales, junto con unas hojas de propaganda y libros de historietas.  Cerca de dos docenas ejemplos se incluyen aqu?, pero una b?squeda sistem?tica probablemente revelar?a muchos m?s.  Cada dibujo va acompa?ado de una breve descripci?n y leyenda interpretativa.  Agradecido aprecio se extiende a estudiantes L?bano Valley College Leslie Marie Hiller y Thafany Pamela Luna Minguez por sus traducciones de algunos de los t?tulos, y para el Arnold Grant en Educaci?n Experiencial para financiar su trabajo.

21 July 1927

"Another American Aviation Achievement" 

Louisville Courier-Journal, 21 July 1927

Only two months earlier, on 21 May, Charles Lindbergh had achieved world fame by completing the first solo flight across the Atlantic.  In this era of aviation firsts, the battle of Ocotal (16 July 1927) was the first time in history that an air attack was directed by ground forces.  Five US Marine DeHaviland biplanes killed upwards of 300 Nicaraguan attackers, evoking a storm of protest and condemnation across the Atlantic World and especially in Latin America.  US Marine Captain Gilbert Hatfield's original reports on the Sandinista assault on Ocotal, along with Sandino's account of the battle, are transcribed in full in PC-DOCS 27.07.16 and PC-DOCS 27.07.20.
  Reprinted in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 22 July 1927 (sign at the bottom reads "200 Nicaraguans killed").

"Otro logro de la aviaci?n americana"

S?lo dos meses antes, el 21 de mayo, Charles Lindbergh hab?a alcanzado la fama mundial al completar el primer vuelo en solitario a trav?s del Atl?ntico.  En esta era de innovaciones de la aviaci?n, la batalla de Ocotal (16 de julio 1927) fue la primera vez en la historia que un ataque a?reo dirigido por las fuerzas de tierra.  Cinco de Marines de EE.UU. biplanos De Havilland mat? a m?s de 300 atacantes de Nicaragua, que evoca una tormenta de protestas y condenas en todo el mundo atl?ntico y, sobre todo en Am?rica Latina.  Los informes originales del Capit?n Gilbert Hatfield de los marinos sobre el asalto sandinista en Ocotal, junto con la cuenta de Sandino de la batalla, se transcriben en su totalidad en PC-DOCS 27.07.16 y PC-DOCS 27.07.20.  Reproducido en el St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 22 de julio de 1927 (signo en la parte inferior se lee "200 nicarag?enses muertos").

24 July 1927

"The Black Hills of Nicaragua."
St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 24 July 1927. 

Representative of the reaction of most of the Latin American and much of the US and European press to the battle of Ocotal, the cartoon accurately portrays most rebel casualties of the bombings as having been killed on the outskirts of town, with the church and town still intact and the town smoldering in the background.

"Las Colinas Negras de Nicaragua."

St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 24 de julio de 1927. 

Representante de la reacci?n de la mayor?a de los Estados de Am?rica Latina y gran parte de la prensa estadounidense y europea a la batalla de Ocotal, la caricatura retrata con precisi?n la mayor?a de los heridos de los atentados que han asesinados en las afueras de las ciudades, con la iglesia y el pueblo ardiendo en el fondo.

3 August 1927

"The Pacification of Nicaragua."
The Daily Worker, 3 August 1927. 

Portraying the US Marines as blood-stained, monstrous, hyper-masculine brutes taking macabre pleasure in the slaughter of innocent Nicaraguan civilians, and aided in their bloodletting by fleets of airplanes, The Daily Worker, organ of the Workers (Communist) Party of America, ranked among the most vociferous opponents of US policy in Nicaragua and Latin America; the paper was also very attentive to issues of race and gender, domestically and internationally.

"La Pacificaci?n de Nicaragua"

The Daily Worker, 3 de agosto de 1927. 

Al presentar a los Marinos de los Estados Unidos con mancha de sangre, monstruosos, hipermasculinos que toman placer macabro en la matanza de inocentes civiles nicarag?enses, y con la ayuda de su sangre por las flotas de aviones, El Peri?dico Trabajadores, ?rgano de los Trabajadores (Partido Comunista) de los Estados Unidos, se ubica entre los mas aridentes opositores de la pol?tica de los Estados Unidos en Nicaragua y Am?rica Latina: el documento tambi?n fue muy atento a los temas de raza y genero, a nivel nacional e internacional.

7 August 1927

"Salesmanship."
St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 7 August 1927. 

Anticipating the upcoming Sixth Pan-American Conference in Havana (January 1928), the cartoon memorializes the battle of Ocotal by depicting the United States as senselessly slaughtering innocent civilians as well as prospects for improved US-Latin American commercial relations.

"Arte de vender"

St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 7 de agosto de 1927. 

Anticip?ndose a la sexta Conferencia Panamericana de La Habana (1928 Enero), en la caricatura se conmemora la batalla de Ocotal al representar a los Estados Unidos como insensatamente matando a civiles inocentes as? como las perspectivas para mejorar Estados Unidos y Am?rica Latina las relaciones comerciales.

5 January 1928

"Unequal, anguished struggle of Nicaragua can only be waged with the courage of patriots like Sandino."
Cr?tica, Buenos Aires, 5 January 1928. 

Expressing the sentiments of much of the Latin American press on the eve of the Pan-American Conference in Havana, the artist's rendition of the bombing of El Chipote portrays the Sandinista rebels as courageous patriots fighting against all odds against the vastly superior power of the US airplanes. (Source: USDS 817.00/5349; caption reads: "Lucha desigual, anguistiosa, la de Nicaragua, s?lo puede afrontarla el coraje de los patriotas como Sandino.")

"Lucha desigual, anguistiosa, la de Nicaragua, solo puede afrontarla el coraje de los patriotas como Sandino."

Cr?tica, Buenos Aires, 5 de enero de 1928.

Expresar los sentimientos de una gran parte de la prensa latinoamericana en la v?spera de la Conferencia Panamericana de La Habana, la representaci?n art?stica del bombardero de El Chipote retrata a los rebeldes sandinistas como valientes patriotas luchando contra todas las probabilidades contra el poder inmensamente superior de los aviones de Estados Unidos.

6 January 1928

"You Can't Blame Him Much."
The Detroit News, 6 January 1928.

Evoking memories of Ocotal and subsequent aerial bombardments in Las Segovias, the cartoon ironically plays off Charles Lindbergh's "goodwill tour" of Latin America. A few days before, on 2 January, Lindbergh was greeted in San Salvador by a cheering throng of thousands, while the day after this cartoon appeared he received a similar reception in Managua. The cartoon captures the ambiguous imagery of aviation during this period, the "Nicaraguan citizen" fleeing in mortal terror from the innocuous airplane.

"No se puede culpar mucho a ?l."

The Detroit News, 6 de enero de 1928. 

Evocan recuerdos de Ocotal y posterior los bombardeos a?reos en Las Segovia, ir?nicamente la caricatura es de Charles Lindbergh "viaje de buena voluntad" de Am?rica Latina. Pocos d?as antes, el 2 de enero, Lindbergh fue recibido en la ciudad de San Salvador por un multitud de miles de personas, mientras que al d?a siguiente de esta vi?eta apareci? recibi? una recepci?n similar en la ciudad de Managua. La pel?cula de dibujos animados im?genes captura la ambig?edad de la aviaci?n durante este per?odo, el "ciudadano nicarag?ense" que huye de mortal terror del inocuo avi?n.

6 January 1928

"Restating the Monroe Doctrine."
The Daily Worker, 6 January 1928. 

Offering an updated interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine, and anticipating the heavy criticism the United States was likely to receive in Havana, the cartoon's image of total destruction and senseless victimization is similar to the images published in the wake of the battle of Ocotal six months earlier (see above).  Significantly, this is the only such artwork encountered that portrays a woman victimized in the Marines' aerial campaign (in keeping with its attention to women and gender, two weeks later, on 20 January, the same newspaper carried the headline, "Marines Bomb Two Women; Sandino Defies Wall Street").

"Reafirmando la doctrina Monroe"

The Daily Worker, 6 de enero de 1928.

Ofrece una interpretaci?n actualizada de la Doctrina Monroe, y adelantarse a las fuertes cr?ticas los Estados Unidos es probable que reciba en La Habana, la imagen de la tira c?mica de la destrucci?n total y absurda victimizaci?n es similar a las im?genes publicadas a ra?z de la batalla de Ocotal seis meses antes (ver arriba). Significativamente, este es la ?nica obra que retrata a una mujer v?ctima de los Marines de la campa?a a?rea (en consonancia con su atenci?n a la mujer y el g?nero, dos semanas m?s tarde, el 20 de enero, el mismo peri?dico dec?a: "Marines Bomba dos mujeres; Sandino desaf?a Wall Street").

7 January 1928

"Viva Nicaragua Libre!"
Fred Ellis, The Daily Worker, 7 January 1928.

Portraying Sandino and his followers as genuine revolutionaries struggling to establish a truly independent republic in Nicaragua, this dignified, almost regal depiction conveys an image of righteous patriotic defiance, and resembles some of the artwork of the US revolutionary era.  It is noteworthy that the cartoonist, Fred Ellis, does not presume to speak for Sandino or his followers, instead quoting him directly ("Nicaragua shall not be the patrimony of imperialists and traitors, and I shall fight them as long as my heart beats").  Also noteworthy are the airplanes, symbols of US imperialist aggression, hovering ominously in the distance.

"Viva Nicaragua Libre!"
Fred Ellis, The Daily Worker, 7 de enero de 1928. 

Retratar a Sandino y sus seguidores como aut?nticos revolucionarios luchan por establecer una rep?blica independiente en Nicaragua, esta representaci?n digna, casi rejal transmite una imagen de justa rebeld?a patri?tica y se asemeja a algunas de las ilustraciones de la ?poca revolucionaria de Estados Unidos.  Cabe destacar que el caricaturista, Fred Ellis, no te atrevas a hablar por Sandino o sus seguidores, en cambio le citando directamente ("Nicaragua no ser? el patrimonio de los imperialistas y traidores, y les luchar? mientras mi coraz?n late").  Tambi?n son destacables los aeroplanos, s?mbolos de la agresi?n imperialista de Estados Unidos, cernido siniestramente en la distancia.

9 January 1928

"Maybe That's Lindy, Bill."
Rollin Kirby, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 9 January 1928.

On the eve of the Sixth Pan-American Conference in Havana, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch offered yet another play on the disjuncture between Lindy's "goodwill tour" and the US use of airpower and amply-armed ground forces in suppressing the Sandino rebellion. Yet compared to many portrayals of the Marines, here they are depicted as ordinary men, surrounded by high brush, in unfamiliar terrain, their vision obscured, and not really sure what the situation is. (I touched up the airplane and caption; in the copy I made from microfilm, these were too faded to see.)

"Tal vez es Lindy, Bill." 

Rollin Kirby, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 9 de enero de 1928.

En la v?spera de la sexta Conferencia Panamericana en la Habana, el St. Louis Post-Dispatch ofreci? otro juego de los disyuntores entre gira de Lindy "buena voluntad" y el uso de Estados Unidos de poder?o a?reo y las fuerzas de tierra armada ampliamente en la supresi?n de la rebeli?n de Sandino. Sin embargo, en comparaci?n con muchas representaciones de los Marines, aqu? ellos son representados como hombres ordinarios, rodeados de cepillo de alta, en un terreno desconocido, su visi?n oscura y no estoy muy seguro que la situaci?n es. (Toqu? el aeroplano y el t?tulo, en la copia que hice desde el microfilm, ?stos fueron tambi?n desapareci? para ver).

12 January 1928

"Another 'We'."
The Detroit News, 12 January 1928.

As Uncle Sam readies to depart for the Havana conference aboard the "Spirit of the Monroe Doctrine," the unlikely confluence of three events ? the Pan-American Conference, Lindbergh's "goodwill tour," and the aerial violence in Las Segovias ? is once again highlighted.  The cartoon's title ? "Another 'We'" ? is a play on Charles Lindbergh's best-selling memoir, titled We (1927, meaning Lindbergh & the Spirit of St. Louis fused together).  Thanks to Brian Horrigan of the University of Minnesota for clarifying the caption's intended meaning.

"Otro 'Nosotros'."

The Detroit News, 12 de enero de 1928.

Como T?o Sam se prepara para salir de la conferencia de La Habana a bordo del "Esp?ritu de la Doctrina Monroe", el improbable confluencia de tres eventos ? la Conferencia Panamericana, Lindbergh y su "viaje de buena voluntad", y la violencia a?rea en Las Segovias ? es una vez m?s destacado.  El t?tulo del dibujo ? "Otro" 'Nosotros'" ? es un juego de memoria best-seller de Charles Lindbergh, titulado Nosotros (1927, lo que significa a Lindbergh y el Esp?ritu de St. Louis fusionados).  Gracias a Brian Horrigan de la Universidad de Minnesota para aclarar el significado deseado del subt?tulo.

16 January 1928

"Music Furnished by the Marine Bombs."
The Daily Worker, 16 January 1928

Same themes, with the Marine airplanes' bombs providing music for the Havana conference. The planes themselves are not depicted; the artist presumed that readers would know where the bombs were coming from.

"La m?sica proporcionada por las bombas marinas"

The Daily Worker, 16 de enero de 1928.  

Los mismos temas, con bombas de los aviones de la Marina proporcionaban m?sica para la Conferencia de la Habana. Los aviones de ellos no est?n representados; el artista se presume que los lectores sabr?an de d?nde ven?an las bombas.

17 January 1928

"A Tip."
The Detroit News, 17 January 1928. 

Included here because it references Lindbergh's "goodwill tour" of Latin America and the just-beginning Havana Conference, the cartoon includes an odd-looking businessman-cum-Uncle Sam (or not), a sour-faced US delegate (actually Charles Evans Hughes), and a heavy-handed punch line.

"Un consejo."

The Detroit News, 17 de enero de 1928. 

Incluido aqu? por las referencias del "viaje de buena voluntad" de Lindbergh de Am?rica Latina y el acaba de empezar Conferencia de La Habana, la historieta incluye un empresario-cum-T?o Sam (o no) de aspecto extra?o, la cara agria del delegado norteamericano (en realidad Charles Evans Hughes), y un frase clave torpe.

18 January 1928

"In Nicaragua. 'What is that?' 'That is the Ambassador of Good-will!'"
The Nation, 18 January 1928.
 

With two armed Nicaraguan rebels pondering the strange apparition in the sky, The Nation offers yet another pointed criticism of US hypocrisy in Latin America just as the Sixth Pan-American Conference was getting underway in Havana.

""En Nicaragua.  '?Qu? es esto?'  '?Esto es el Embajador de Buena voluntad!'"

The Nation, 18 de enero de 1928. 

Con dos rebeldes nicarag?enses armados que consideran la aparici?n extra?a en el cielo, La Naci?n ofrece una otra cr?tica puntiaguda de la hipocres?a estadounidense en Am?rica Latina como la Sexta Conferencia panamericana se pon?a en curso en La Habana.

19 January 1928

"Hands Off Nicaragua! Aid to Sandino's Wounded!"
Supplement to El Libertador, Mexico City, 19 January 1928.
(two views)

In this propaganda broadsheet of the Hands Off Nicaragua Committee, the oversized US airplane conveys an image of overwhelming power, while the smoldering landscape evokes a sense of wanton massacre and total destruction. Significantly, the US Marines never bombed Chinandega (though two private US mercenaries did, at the behest of Conservatives, in February 1927, during the Nicaraguan Civil War, though they did almost no damage). Translation: "Aid to Sandino's Wounded! Public Collection in the Entire Mexican Territory and in the United States. ... Nicaragua's Struggle Is Our Struggle; its Wounded Our Brothers ... Remember the Massacres of Chinandega, Ocotal, and Chipote ..." Source: NA127/220/1/839. I am grateful to David C. Brooks for providing a copy of this broadside.

"Manos Fuera de Nicaragua!  ?Auxilie a los heridos de Sandino!"

Suplemento de El Libertador, Ciudad de M?xico, 19 de enero 1928.
(dos vistas)

En este peri?dico de propaganda del Comit? Manos Fuera de Nicaragua, el avi?n estadounidense sobredimensionado transmite una imagen de poder abrumador, mientras que el ardiente paisaje evoca un sentido de masacre indiscriminada y la destrucci?n total. Significativamente, los Marines nunca bombardearon a Chinandega (aunque dos mercenarios privados de Estados Unidos hicieron, a instancias de los conservadores, en febrero de 1927, durante la Guerra Civil nicarag?ense, aunque no hicieron casi ning?n da?o).  Fuente: NA127/220/1/839.  Agradezco a David C. Brooks para proporcionar una copia de esta andanada.

24 January 1928

"Airlines."
Fred Ellis, The Daily Worker, 24 January 1928. 

Conveying the interpretation of the Worker's (Communist) Party of America, the Anti-Imperialist League, and many other left-leaning organizations of the late 1920s, the cartoon portrays the United States as a mighty behemoth determined to dominate and control Latin America by brute force, represented here by massive cannons and an endless fleet of airplanes emanating from the Capitol Building in Washington D.C.

"Aerol?neas"

Fred Ellis, The Daily Worker, 24 de enero 1928.

Transmitir la interpretaci?n del Partido Trabajador (Comunista) de Am?rica (del Norte), la Liga Antimperialista, y muchas otras organizaciones izquierdistas de los ?ltimos a?os del decenio de 1920, el c?mic retrata los Estados Unidos como un poderoso gigante decidido a dominar y controlar Am?rica Latina por medio de la fuerza, en este caso representada por enormes ca?ones y un interminable flota de aviones procedentes de el Edificio del Capitolio en Washington D.C.

25 January 1928

"While We Drop Soft Words In Havana."
St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 25 January 1928. 

Compared to The Detroit News cartoon of the same date (below), this illustration conveys a similar sense of US-produced aerial terror and senseless victimization, while its depiction of the wounded and dead offers a more pointed and direct criticism of the hypocrisy of US Latin America policy.

"" 

25 January 1928

"A Diplomatic Incident."
The Detroit News, 25 January 1928.

Portraying a terrified "Nicaragua citizen" expressing his hope that "this 'temporary emergency' doesn't turn into a war," the cartoon pokes fun at the euphemisms used by US policymakers, highlighting the popular perception that US policy in Nicaragua was at core hypocritical.

"" 

25 January 1928

"King Oil."
Fred Ellis, The Daily Worker, 25 January 1928.

With airplanes hovering in the distance (lower right), the cartoon draws a direction connection between US military ventures overseas and the interests of the US petroleum industry.

"" 

24 February 1928

"Another Victim of the American Fliers at Chinandega."
All-American Anti-Imperialist League, 24 February 1928. 

In this detail from a propaganda pamphlet of the All-American Anti-Imperialist League, a man portrayed as a victim of US imperialist aggression lies dead on the street. As noted above, the US Marines never bombed Chinandega, though two US mercenary pilots did, causing very little damage.

"" 

7 March 1928

"On the Trail of Sandino."
Hugo Calvert, cover of The Nation, 7 March 1928.

In an ambiguous image, the oversized airplane conveys US imperial might, while its fragile appearance and lack of aggressive behavior conveys weakness and vulnerability. The man on the ground, standing beside his mule and hut and taking careful aim at the plane, evokes not victimization but defiance, resistance, and righteous defense of his home and property. The mule's lack of concern, and the simplicity of the surroundings, suggest that such defense is a simple, uncomplicated, easily understandable act. This issue of The Nation launched Carleton Beals' famous series of articles on the Sandino rebellion, including his interviews with Sandino -- the only US journalist to interview the guerrilla chieftain.

"" 

June-July 1976

"El General Sandino," No. 11
Script by Fidel Morales, drawings by Yordi
Prisma del Meridiano 80 (nos. 26-28), Cuba, June-July 1976
Reprinted in Barricada, Managua, 12 Feb 1980 

In this comic book version of Sandino's fight against the Marines, published in Cuba three years before the triumph of the Sandinista Revolution in 1979, and 48 years after the event, the "unequal fight" against Marine Corps airplanes on El Chipote causes the deaths of more than fifty rebels, compelling Sandino to retreat, melt into the jungle, and rethink his tactics, from which evolved the "war of guerrillas."

Below appear close-ups of the two panels showing airplanes (of poor quality because we are looking at a reprint of a reprint of a reprint, but accurate in that all are biplanes similar in shape and size to the Corsairs and Curtiss Falcons actually used against the rebels at El Chipote; the Marine pilots reported seeing at least 45 dead rebels, as seen in the original report):

[Marines:] "We'll attack them by the flanks! Call in the airplanes!

[Sandinista:]  "A I R P L A N E !"

"The battle became generalized . . . the Yankees attacked with the security of knowing their enemy was practically unarmed. Soon the invading troops were on top of the Sandinista troops and the situation turned desperate . . . "

"It's useless, my valiant ones!  We have more than fifty dead!  We have to fight those accursed gringos another way!  Follow me!"

"The aeroplanes used the [resounding] tactic of frontal warfare that the revolutionaries had adopted, and soon all could see that the battle was lost."

In the last panel, the surviving Sandinistas melt back into the jungle, and from this defeat Sandino would develop "an invincible weapon: ?la guerra de guerrillas!" -- guerrilla war.

"" 

7 August 1983

Excerpt of a Serial Graphic History of Sandino's Rebellion
7 August 1983
Barricada, Managua 

Excerpt of a serial graphic history of the Sandino rebellion, featuring Sandino's famous "men of grass" feint on El Chipote in mid-January 1928, published in the official daily organ of the FSLN during a period of intensifying conflict with the Reagan administration.  In these panels, US planes spend "16 days all blessed day long bombing.  Of course we got them too and many birds were mortally wounded." Sandino orders his troops to build grass dummies; the planes foolishly attack the fake soldiers; the Marines, sweating profusely and scratching their heads like morons, are shocked at Sandino's escape.  The grinning, crinkly-eyed narrator, a wise and seasoned campesino, remarks, "The truth, my friend, is that the Yankees have a lot to learn about our own systems" -- giving contemporary voice to Sandino's comment at the time -- as the heroic rebel chieftain's steely-eyed visage lends silent authority to the campesino's comment.

"" 

9 October 1983

North American Airplane downed in 1926 [and] in 1983.
Barricada, 9 October 1983 (fragment) 

Appearing two months after "An Inspired Deception," this cartoon-photo composite seeks to establish a direct connection between Sandino's fight against the Marines in the 1920s and 1930s and the FSLN's ongoing conflict with the Reagan administration and the Contras.  The intended message is unambiguous: two planes, two different periods, but the same struggle against US imperialist aggression.  (It is noteworthy that Sandino's Defending Army was founded in September 1927, and that Sandino's forces downed its first US plane in July 1927 -- not 1926, as noted here.)

""